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Section 6 Clustering and Allophones

6.1 Linking (Liaison) 1. There are two kinds of linking, one is a vowel links another vowel and the other, a consonant links another vowel or consonant. We will start with the linking between vowels. In this part, there are two glides that serve to link the high vowels with other vowels. Glide /y/ is used to link between /i/ and other vowels. For instance, 879 /i/ reality [riÈJQlDtö] be active [biÈJQktIv] /e/ playoff [ÈpleJDf] pay off [ÈpeJDf] /AI/ triangle [trAIÈJQNgl`] my ankle [mAIÈJQNkl`] /I/ annoyance [DÈnIJDns] The boy and me [DDÈbIJDnmi]

"2" 2. And glide /w/ is used to link between /u/ and other vowels. For instance 880 /u/ fluid [ÈfluWId] do it [duWIt] /o/ snowy [snoWö] go out [goÈWAUt] /AU/ flour [flAUWÔ] how is it [ÈhAUWIzIt] /ju/ newest [ÈnuWIst] a few apples [«fjuÈWQplÁz]

Practice the following expressions: 1. I can’t study with the radio on. 2. He is a creative piano player. 3. The biologist has a lot of experience in this area. 4. No one wants to go out with me. 5. Who ate the apples? 6. There’re still two apples left.

"3" 3. As for the non-high vowels, there is no glide to serve as a link between two vowels. Some dialects in English may use /// and /r/ to link these vowels. For example, 883 1. /«/ banana oil [b«ÈnQn«/ǍIl] 2. // saw us [Èsr«s]

6.2 Consonant followed by a vowel The second kind of linking is between the consonants and the vowel right after it. It is often understood as the consonant that ends the first word being pronounced intervocalically as if it belonged to two syllables. However, the data show that the ending consonant of the first word is completely different from a starting consonant of another word. Compare the following sounds: 884 1. gray tissue great issue   2. I scream ice cream

Type 1 -c + v- When a word ending in a single consonant is followed by a word beginning with a vowel, the final consonant of the word is often pronounced as part of the following syllable. 885 1. Look at me. 2. Pick it up. 3. I couldn’t figure it out. 4. Not at all. 5. What are you doing?

Type 2 -cc + v- When a word ending in a consonant cluster is followed by a word beginning with a vowel, the final consonant of the cluster is often pronounced as part of the following syllable (resyllabification). 887 1. I won’t accept it. 2. He looked at me.

6.3 Consonants followed by consonants Type 1 -c1 + c1- When a word ending in a consonant is followed by a word beginning with the same consonant, the two consonants will be pronounced as one single consonant. 889 1. a big girl 2. walks slowly 3. stop peeping 4. real life 5. a hot topic

Type 2 -c1 + c2- When a word ending in a consonant is followed by a word beginning with another consonant, the two consonants will be pronounced as two consonants. If the ending consonant is a stop consonant, the ending stop consonant is not released before the following consonant is pronounced (especially when it is followed by another stop or affricate consonant). 891 1. Kiss me. 2. It’s a great book. 3. He’s a good cook. 4. Kids love Big Bird.

6.4 Assimilation Assimilation means that one sound is altered to become more like its neighbor. For example, in “sit down,” the ending /t/ is assimilated into the following /d/ sound. The /T/ in “worth” becomes /D/ in “worthy.” There are four types assimilation in English: 1. progressive / forward / perseverative assimilation 2. regressive / anticipatory assimilation 3. full / complete assimilation 4. coalescent assimilation

6.4.1 Progressive assimilation Progressive assimilation refers to one sound preceding and affecting the following sound. The most common types of these sounds are the inflections of conjugation and plural forms. The “-s” suffix following the voiceless consonants is always pronounced as /s/ and always pronounced as /z/ if following a vowel or a voiced consonant. For example: 893 1. look looks 2. love loves 3. lie lies 4. lie lied 5. look looked 6. love loved

6.4.2 Regressive assimilation Regressive assimilation refers to one sound preceding but being affected the following sound. For example: 894 1. “input” is pronounced like [ÈImpUt] 2. “pancake” is pronounced like [ÈpQNkek] 3. “have to” is pronounced like [ÈhQft«] 4. “has to” is pronounced like [ÈhQst«] 5. “used to”

6.4.3 Full or complete assimilation Full or complete assimilation refers to one sound being changed in the direction of a neighboring sound. For example: 895 1. “cupboard” is pronounced like [ÈkÃbÔd], not [ÈkÃpbÔd] 2. “horseshoe” is pronounced like [ÈhrSu] rather than [ÈhrsSu]

6.4.4 Coalescent assimilation Coalescent assimilation refers to two adjacent sounds producing a new sound that is between the two original sounds. (alveolar + palatal ’ palato-alveolar) 896

Try to read the following words:  897  1. sure; pressure issue social   2. leisure; pleasure   3. statue graduate   4. perpetual individual   5. nature procedure   6. question vacation essential   7. righteous   8. actual virtue gesture   9. graduate modular 10. expression mission

6.5 Dissimilation Compared with assimilation in English, dissimilation is less common. Dissimilation means the changes which occur when one of two recurring sounds is altered to become less like its neighbor (p. 215, Bronstein). In these instances, either one of the two repeated sounds is dropped or it is changed into a different sound. For example, in “governor” the first /r/ is dropped and pronounced as /ÈgÃvn1Ô/ without pronouncing the first /r/ sound. According to Celce-Murcia et al. (1996), “In English, the process of dissimilation can be ignored for pedagogical purpose” (p. 162). However, they still listed seven categories for instances of deletion (p. 162).

6.5.1 Loss of /t/ when /nt/ Loss of /t/ when /nt/ is between a stressed and unstressed syllables: e.g., winter, Toronto, enter, mental Examples: 898 1.  Winter is too cold here. 2.  Toronto is a large city. 3.  He entered the room.

6.5.2 Loss of /t/ or /d/ Loss of /t/ or /d/ when they occur second in a sequence or cluster of three consonants: Examples: 899 1.  castle, wrestling, restless, exactly 2.  soundless, windless, kindness, proudly 3.  three months, the earth’s surface

6.5.3 Deletion of word-final /t/ or /d/ in clusters Deletion of word-final /t/ or /d/ in clusters of two at a word boundary when the following word begins with a consonant. Examples: 8100 1.  This is the best season. 2.  a blind man 3.  They gave me some cold food.

6.5.4 Loss of an unstressed medial vowel Loss of an unstressed medial vowel (also referred to as syncope), where the unstressed vowel /«/ or /I/ optionally drops out in some multisyllabic words following the strongly stressed syllable: Examples: 8101 1. “i” privilege, family, aspirin 2. “e” temperature, every, evening, camera, 3. “a” comparable, restaurant 4. “o” potato, chocolate, history, laboratory 5. correct, garage, parade

On some occasions Sometimes, especially in child’s language, aphesis occurs, which means loss of an unstressed initial syllable in highly informal speech. 8102 1.  ’cause ’cause he’s not here. 2.  ’bout ’bout ten o’clock. 3.  ’round See you ’round.

6.5.5 Loss of the first noninitial /r/ in a word Loss of the first noninitial /r/ in a word that has another /r/ in a following syllable: Examples: 8103 1.  February, governor, surprise In some dialects, 2. library, temperature

6.5.6 Loss of final /v/ in “of” Loss of final /v/ in “of” (i.e., reduction to schwa) before words with initial consonants: Examples: 8104 lots of trouble waste of time short of money

6.5.7 Loss of initial /h/ and /D/ Loss of initial /h/ and /D/ in pronominal forms in connected speech: Examples: 8105 1.  ask him 2.  Did he 3.  tell them

More examples: 8106 1. does he: What does he do? 2. did he: Where did he go? 3. has he: Has he done anything yet? 4. is he: Who is he?

6.6 Epenthesis The insertion of a sound into the middle of a word is known as Epenthesis. For instance, something is pronounced as [ÈsÃmpTIN] rather than [ÈsÃmTIN] and /p/ is added between /m/ and /T/. In inflations of regular plural and past endings, epenthesis will occur if /s/ is added to sibilants and /d/ is added to alveolar stops. Epenthesis can be very common for Mandarin speakers when consonant clusters occur within a word or in the linking of words. For examples, it would be difficult for Mandarin speakers to say “clear” as [klIr]. [k«lIr] is often heard because consonant cluster is rare in Mandarin as well as other dialects spoken in China and Taiwan.

Examples: 8107     1. rose roses [roz] [roz®z]     2. watch watches [wAtS] [wAtS®z]     3. judge judges [dZÃdZ] [dZÃdZ®z]     4. buzz buzzes [bÃz] [bÃz®z] 8108     5. fade faded [fed] [fed®d]     6. add added [Qd] [Qd®d]     7. hate hated [het] [het®d]     8. heat heated [hit] [hit®d]